Thinking about it, Portugal is situated on the northern hemisphere, thousands of quilometers away from the south pole. When and how did the connection between the two begin? Come back in time with us…

During the marine descovery era, a lot of ideas were out of date. In fact, Portugal and Spain contributed significantely to the globe geographic knowledge. Because of it, a competition began, with ended up with the descovery of new comercial trade routes and territories.

One of the main accomplishments of the time was the circum-navigation of the globe. The masterpiece was performed by the portuguese Fernão de Magalhães, who as the service of the spanish crown managed to travel around the globe by sea. The adventure started in 1519, and even though Fernão de Magalhães lost his life during the trip in 1521, he was the first navegator to pass the strait between the american and the antarctic continent, today known as Magalhães Strait. This accomplishment had a major importance on the way that the southern hemisphere region was known as. The antarctic continent was, until then, only idealized as a counter part to the north pole. It had been proposed by Aristótele’s antique greek (4 bC) and Ptolomeu (1 aC) that this land was named as Terra Austral Incognita, meaning southern unknown land. After the Magalhães Strait was charted, the name for Antarctica was revised and changed to “Magellanica”, in honor of the portuguese navegator. The defenition was used in charted maps until the 18th century (Figure 1).

Later on, early in the 18th century, Captain James Cook discovered a high abundance of seals in South Georgia Island, in the sub-Antarctic region. The seal hunting started taking place, for it was a valuable live marine resource. On the way back from the voyages to the northern hemisphere, one of the main intermediate ports was in Macau, back then under portuguese administration.

Fur seals (Arctocephalus spp.) were the first species of comercial interest due to their pelts, and after over-exploitation of their populations, the Southern Elephant seal became the main target for their oil. When returning home to England and to the United States of America, which took a long time, a significant quantity of salt was needed to preserve the resources captured. As a solution, the ships would stop at islands such as Cape Verde, Azores and Madeira, where the lands were arid with a big availability of salt and people ready to the recruted.

Some of the comments by people abord the ships mention the cheap food on the portuguese islands and the loyalty of the portuguese people, who were willing to get aboard under an american flag. For example, some of the food provided by the Flower Island in Azores included potatoes, onions, pumpkin and domesticated birds. However, portuguese names were badly registered on the jorneys because, as a british biologist mentioned, the americans had a hard time understanding portuguese names, and therefore these would be spelled wrong, illegible or even in an ”americanized” way.

The voyages to the islands around the Antarctic continent were almost, if not always, frequented by at least one portuguese person. The islands visited during the hunting, that lasted decades, include: Prince Edward Islands, Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands, Amsterdam and Saint Paul Islands, Heard Island, Macquarie Island, Auckland Islands, South Shetland Islands, South Georgia Island and Gough Island (Figure 2). 

Seal hunting in Antarctica ended in the early 20th century. Since then, in 1984, Portugal has joined SCAR (Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research) and implemented a scientific research station, Comandante Ferraz, in King Jorge’s Island. Portugal’s most recent involvement in Antarctic research intensified during the 2007-09 polar years. From the beginning of the early 00’s, Portugal was also a member of the countries which supported diplomatic organizations and investigation teams who coordinate activities regarding the hunting of seals and whales in the polar regions. In January 29th 2010 Portugal signed the Antarctic Treaty.

Portuguese citizens were directly involved with the Antarctic continent for centuries, from the maritime discoveries, through navigation and exploration of the territory, up until the hunting period, which included animals like seals and whales. The reason for their involvement is due to the Portuguese people and their unique marine patrimony, which have become, and still remain, indispensable elements of the South Pole.

Reference: Headland RK. Portugal in Antarctic History (2022). Polar Record 59(e11): 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0032247422000353 

Authors: Débora Carmo, Graça Sofia Nunes e Santiago Villalobos

The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) has a large information base that allows policymakers access to relevant and reliable scientific knowledge. The environmental protection protocol of the Antarctic treaty works to assess the environmental impact of certain activities, such as the conservation of fauna and flora, waste disposal and management, and the area’s protection and management.

There are advantages in science contributing to policymaking, as it allows:

• The understanding and response to the environmental consequences of climate change in the Antarctic region;
• To address risks to biodiversity associated with the introduction to Antarctica of non-native species, including the transfer of native species between bioregions within Antarctica;
• Appropriately management of the environmental impacts of tourism and non-governmental activities; and
• To improve the effectiveness of protected area management, and further developing the Antarctic protected area system.

The inclusion of scientists from various countries and/or multinational support for presented research evidence can facilitate the construction of the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS). The greater involvement of early-career scientists, including through the Association of Early-Career Polar Scientists (APECS), may provide an additional opportunity to enhance the interface between science and policy.

The authors of this article also explain how to improve the policymaking process. For example, by raising awareness among the scientific community about opportunities to inform environmental policymaking within the ATS. Also, a clearer communication by the ATCM and CEP in relation to specific knowledge gaps that must be filled to contribute to advancing Antarctic environmental protection. SCAR could further assist in strengthening the communication among its members on areas of research by the ATCM and the CEP. It is also important to continue to inform the scientific community through meetings on the routes where relevant policies are formed from good scientific communication to policymakers. This cooperation between scientists and politicians provides an efficient implementation of measures that strengthen the governmental structure of Antarctica, a continent that equals the space of Europe. There is still a need for better science and policy communication, combined with better science funding planning, relevant to policies to protect the Antarctic environment.

Source: Hughes, K. A., Constable, A., Frenot, Y., López-Martínez, J., McIvor, E., Njåstad, B., Terauds, A., Ligget, D., Roldan, G., Wilmotte, A. &  Xavier, J. C. (2018). Antarctic environmental protection: Strengthening the links between science and governance. Environmental Science & Policy, 83, 86-95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2018.02.006

Author: Raquel Coimbra

Almost all scientists agree that the warming observed since the Industrial Revolution is largely explained by rising atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations, and as a result, the frequency of extremely warm years and the harmful effects of anthropogenic global warming (AGW) on ecosystems will continue to increase in the future. However, much of the public remains unconvinced of the human influence on climate and believes scientists continue to debate AGW causes and processes. This chasm between public opinion and scientific agreement is commonly referred to as the consensus gap.

Several factors contribute to it, including media outlets that misrepresent our fundamental understanding of AGW and elected politicians that confuse the public by expressing skepticism. Furthermore, internet blogs and social media have also strongly contributed to the consensus gap by fomenting misunderstandings of AGW causes and consequences. Indeed, the internet is open to public use, and individuals and organizations can promote their perspectives, regardless of their societal importance or validity.

Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) have become iconic symbols for AGW, especially because credible estimates suggest that the entire Arctic may be ice-free during summer within a few decades, a process that will drastically reduce polar-bear populations. Thus, on the basis of scientific research, polar bears are officially classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and threatened under the US Endangered Species Act.

In a recent article, European researchers showed that blogs that deny AGW disregard the overwhelming scientific evidence of Arctic sea-ice loss and polar bear vulnerability. Specifically, by denying the impacts of AGW on polar bears, such bloggers aim to cast doubt on other established ecological consequences of AGW, thus aggravating the consensus gap.

The authors identified the positions of bloggers on Arctic ice extent and polar-bear status, among others. They found a clear separation between 45 science-based blogs and 45 science-denier blogs, with science-based blogs using the frame of established scientific certainties and supported arguments with published literature, while denier blogs mainly focused on the uncertainties regarding the effects of AGW, suggesting that such uncertainties cast doubt on the demographic trends of polar bears. Moreover, while scientific blogs provided context and associated evidence, denier blogs often removed context or misinterpret examples with the intention of influencing how content is interpreted.

The authors suggest that to counter misinformation and reduce the gap, scientists should venture beyond the confines of their labs to directly engage with the public and policymakers, thereby strongly confronting and resisting the well-funded and organized network of AGW denial.

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Source: Harvey JA, Van Den Berg D, Ellers J, et al (2018) Internet Blogs, Polar Bears, and Climate-Change Denial by Proxy. Bioscience 68:281–287. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix133

Author: Guilherme Jeremias

In the oceans, both monitoring and the application of conservation measures to deter these impacts can be quite complex and sometimes inadequate. Particularly in international and remote waters, mainly due to political and logistical reasons. In turn, fisheries occur worldwide, both in exclusive economic zones (EEZ) and in international waters. It is an activity with a profound impact on marine ecosystems, due to overexploitation of fish stocks, removal of key species from the habitat and the accidental capture of marine vertebrates (e.g. whales, turtles, seabirds). Thus, the improvement in the management of fisheries and marine resources are extremely necessary. In addition, one of the biggest problems facing marine conservation are illegal and undeclared fisheries, especially in international waters. That is, the lack of knowledge and information about the fishing vessel that are operating, as well as the amount and species that are being targeted / affected.

Therefore, a research group, with the aim of increasing the surveillance and detection of illegal and unreported fisheries in a vast area of the southern ocean, has implemented a small technological device “logger”, on the back of 169 individuals of two seabird species –Wandering Albatross and Amsterdam Albatross – from November 2018 to March 2019. In order to detect the numerous fishing vessels, present in the EEZs and in international waters.

How?

1 – Albatrosses are species that cover huge areas of the ocean surface (millions km2) and are highly attracted by fishing vessels, being able to detect them 30 km away.

2 – Fishing vessels should always use the Automatic Identification System (AIS) in order to be monitored. However, in illegal fishing, this system is often turned off. Yet, all fishing vessels emit radar signals.

3 – These signals are then detected by the loggers implemented in the albatrosses and provide information in real time on the fishing vessel, including the position, and whether the AIS is functioning correctly or not.

Of this entire process, the 169 albatrosses in the study transmitted more than 5000 radar detections. As a result, within the French EEZs, as the Kerguelen and Crozet archipelagos, no cases of undeclared fishing vessels were found. However, in the EEZ of Amsterdam Island, 2 cases were detected, and in the Prince Edward Islands, all radar detections showed that none of these vessels had AIS in operation. In other hand, at international waters, at least half of the radar detections had no associated AIS. Moreover, mostly were in subtropical waters, where large Asian vessels operate on tuna fisheries. Many of them had irregular transmissions and incomplete vessel identification information.

This study has shown that albatrosses, as well as other seabirds and species in the future, may in fact function as sentinels of the oceans, and help improve our ability to monitor areas that are of difficult access, from the detection to the potential action of Navy ships (Fig. 1). Plus, albatrosses allowed detecting vessels with malfunction in mandatory identification systems, as well as the interaction between albatrosses and fishing vessels. In this way, providing a double benefit for both the conservation of species and the fight against illegal fisheries.

Currently, the transmission of knowledge to practical and implementation of conservation measures and policies is not always simple and immediate. Thus, this step is an extremely positive step, of the many still necessary, for a better and more effective conservation of marine habitats and resources.

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Source: Weimerskirch, Henri, et al. Ocean sentinel albatrosses locate illegal vessels and provide the first estimate of the extent of nondeclared fishing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117.6 3006-3014, 2020. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1915499117

Author: José Abreu

A study at the School of Education of Bragança evaluated the perception of climate change by undergraduate students taking two courses on climate change: Social Education and Environmental Education. The researchers performed a total of 129 surveys on a non-probabilistic sample, focusing on the main topics within environmental studies. Misguiding questions were included in the surveys to test the knowledge of the subjects regarding climate change.

The researchers found that the perception of the students on climate change differed depending on the course they were taking. The students taking Environmental Education ranked medium, with an understanding of climate change processes closer to the facts. That is, their education and technical knowledge on the topic had a stronger influence on their perception of climate change.

In general, the students showed concern about the environment, but the will to act on it seemed to be lacking. Most of the students faced climate change as a critical issue that must be solved by various sectors of the society. Yet, there was a lack of scientific understanding or knowledge about climate processes and climate change. Further, most subjects identified the consequences of climate change, but did not connect those with the need to preserve the environment.

These results indicate that one of the main challenges moving forward will be to find strategies that allow more information and education about climate change, i.e., education on this topic is critical and should be implemented in the educational system. This will encourage students to take action and develop activities to match their concerns.

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Source: Ramos, Ricardo. (2016). “Percepção dos alunos do ensino Superior face as alterações climáticas” Dissertação de Mestrado. Bragança. Escola Superior de Educação de Bragança. doi: https://bibliotecadigital.ipb.pt/handle/10198/13904

Author: Ricardo Ramos

Unfortunately, the availability and quality of Arctic berries has been dropping due to climate change and pollution from anthropogenic activities such as mining. Berries are an important source of food in times of scarcity, and the geographical distribution of the different berry species is also part of the community knowledge. Due to the warmer temperatures, the competition for the berries between Inuit and wildlife is raising as certain species, such as the Canadian geese, are increasing in numbers.

A recent study published in Human Ecology, shows the importance that berries have for the different Inuit communities and how this natural resource is part of the culture and important for their subsistence. For that reason, efforts are being made to include berry-associated activities in conservation policies and land use planning, as a way of mitigating climate change and anthropogenic impacts on the ecosystem, as well as maintaining Inuit culture.

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Source: Boulanger-Lapointe N., Gérin-Lajoie J., Collier L.S., Desrosiers S., Spiech C., Henry G.H.R., Hermanutz L., Lévesque E. and Cuerrier A. (2019) Berry Plants and Berry Picking in Inuit Nunangat: Traditions in a Changing Socio-Ecological Landscape. Human Ecology 47:81-93. doi: 10.1007/s10745-018-0044-5

Author: Ricardo Matias

However, the way these interpersonal relationships evolve over the whole duration of the campaign seems to undergo a significant change about halfway through the mission. Indeed, the analysis of the interpersonal behaviors of 23 individuals who spent 14 months at a station in Antarctica suggests that during the first half of the campaign there is a tendency to increase and improve interpersonal relationships within the base, and that from the beginning of the second half of the campaign there is a deterioration in the quality of interpersonal relationships that were already established. If on the one hand the members of the base demonstrate that they need to relate to and feel connected to other people, on the other hand they want to do so without having to interact much or establish a stronger affective connection.

Curiously, this deterioration or cooling of interpersonal relationships does not necessarily happen because people within the base develop bad relationships and conflict. What seems to happen is that the need to establish deeper interpersonal relationships, in which individuals talk about their feelings or feel cherished decreases over time. A kind of mechanism of adaptation to life in isolation. As a consequence, if on the one hand the interaction between base members becomes less frequent, on the other hand each individual seems to become more competent to manage their own relationships and this is critical to the success of the campaign.

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Source: Paul, F. J., Mandal, M. K., Ramachandran, K., & Panwar, M. R. (2010). Interpersonal behavior in an isolated and confined environment. Environment and Behavior, 42(5), 707-717. doi: 10.1177/0013916509336889

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Author: Pedro Quinteiro